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Part One3

Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics3

1.1．Nature and Properties of Human Language3

1.1.1．The nature of human language4

1.1.2．The comparison between human language and animal communication systems11

1.1.3．The definitions of language15

1.2．Functions of Human Language16

1.2.1．From a learner's individual,pragmatic point of view16

1.2.2．From an interactive point of view17

1.2.3．From a social point of view18

1.3．Linguistics19

1.3.1．The definition of linguistics19

1.3.2．The major branches of general linguistics20

1.3.3．The basic concepts in linguistics21

1.3.4．The maior modern linguistic schools and theories23

1.3.5．Representative figures of schools of linguistics24

1.4．The Study of Language in Functional Approach28

Topics for Discussion29

Books for Reference29

Exercises for the Chapter30

Part Two33

Chapter 2 Language,Thought and Reality33

2.1．Early Theories Concerning the Relationship Between Language,Thought and Reality33

2.1.1．Monism34

2.1.2．Dualism34

2.1.3．Saussure's Sign Theory,Richard and Ogden's Semantic Triangle35

2.2．Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses36

2.2.1．Introduction to Sapir and Whorf36

2.2.2．Sapir's Linguistic Relativity38

2.2.3．Whorf's Linguistic Determinism39

2.3．Argument Concerning the lssue43

2.3.1．Supporting views43

2.3.2．Criticism on Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis43

2.4．Other Views Concerning the Relationship Between Language,Thought and Reality46

2.5．The Insight the Debate Has Brought to Us46

2.6．Comparison of the Thinking Patterns of Chinese and English-Speaking People48

Topics for Discussion55

Books for reference56

Exercises for the Chapter56

Chapter 3 Language,Culture,Society and Individuals57

3.1．The Relationship Between Language and Culture57

3.1.1．Definitions of Culture57

3.1.2．The nature of Culture59

3.1.3．The universality in biology,culture and language60

3.1.4．The peculiarity in biology,culture and language61

3.1.5．The dialectal relation between language and culture64

3.1.6．Problems concerning language and Culture73

3.2．The Relationship Between Language and Society75

3.2.1．Language is first of all a social phenomenon75

3.2.2．Human societies are varied,so are their languages76

3.3．The RelationshiP Between Language and Individuals78

3.3.1．Language is an important means of survival for every individual79

3.3.2．Language is a tool of learning for everybody79

33.3．Every speaker has his own style79

3.3.4．Every speaker is a member of the speech community80

3.4．Comparison Between the Two Major Culture Models80

3.4.1．High-Context Cultures and Low-Context Cultures81

3.4.2．P-Time Culture and M-Time Culture85

3.5．Cross-Cultural Communication85

3.5.1．Problems in cross-cultural communication86

3.5.2．The importance of non-verbal communication88

3.5.3．The ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural settings89

Topics for Discussion90

Books for Reference90

Exercises for the Chapter91

Chapter 4 Language in Business and Language in Politics93

4.1．Language in Business93

4.1.1．Language and business94

4.1.2．English in business in a broader sense94

4.1.3．English in business in a narrower sense95

4.1.4．Culture and its implication in business98

4.1.5．How to improve competence in business English?99

4.2．Language of Political Oratory100

4.2.1．The relationship between language and politics100

4.2.2．The pu rpose and function of political speeches101

4.2.3．Some textual characteristics of language used in political speeches101

4.2.4．Some example passages of political speeches102

Topics for Discussion106

Books for Reference106

Exercises for the Chapter106

Chapter 5 Language in T ＆ L—A Functional Perspective to Language Teaching and Learning107

5.1．A Brief Review of Major Language Teaching Methodologies107

5.1.1．Grammar translation method107

5.1.2．Oral-aural method108

5.1.3．Task-based approach108

5.1.4．Communicative language teaching108

5.2．Functional Linguistics and Language Teaching and Learning109

5.3．Some Broad Issues of Policy and Practice in Language Teaching from a Functional Perspective110

5.4．A Framework of the Organization of Teaching114

5.4.1．Teaching is an art as well as a science115

5.4.2．Language teaching undergoes several processes115

Topics for Discussion116

Books for Reference116

Exercises for the Chapter117

Part Three121

Chapter 6 Semantics121

6.1．Theories Concerning Meaning121

6.1.1．Conceptualism122

6.1.2．Mechanism124

6.1.3．Behaviorism125

6.1.4．Componential Theory126

6.1.5．Contextualism128

6.1.6．Functionalism130

6.2．Categorization of Meaning131

6.2.1．The traditional approach131

6.2.2．Pragmatic approach132

6.2.3．The functional approach132

6.2.4．The systemic-functional approach135

6.3．Reference and Sense136

6.3.1．Reference136

6.3.2．Sense137

6.4．Changes in the Meaning of Words137

6.4.1．The causes of changes in word meaning137

6.4.2．How words change meaning139

6.5．Problems in the Study of the Sense Meaning of Words141

6.5.1．Denotation and Connotation of words142

6.5.2．Synonyms144

6.5.3．Antonyms150

6.5.4．Hyponyms153

6.5.5．Polysemes154

6.5.6．Homonyms156

6.5.7．Metonyms158

6.5.8．Retronyms158

6.5.9．Meronyms158

6.5.10．Nonsense Words158

6.6．Problems in the Study of the Meaning of Sentences159

6.6.1．Entailment160

6.6.2．Presupposition161

6.6.3．Implicature163

6.6.4．Other relationships165

6.7．Ambiguitv in English167

6.7.1．Some characteristics of English give rise to ambiguity168

6.7.2．Modern English is notorious for its abundance of ambiguity168

6.7.3．Methods to avoid ambiguity175

6.7.4．Significance of ambiguity178

6.8．Ambiguity in Chinese180

6.8.1．Kinds of ambiguity in Chinese180

6.8.2．Methods to avoid most ambiguity in Chinese182

Topics for Discussion183

Books for Reference183

Exercises for the Chapter184

Chapter 7 Morphology and Lexicology185

7.1．Morphemes and Morphology185

7.1.1．The concept of morpheme186

7.1.2．The two classes of morpheme186

7.1.3．Morphs and allomorphs188

7.1.4．Morphological rules189

7.1.5．Morphological classification of languages in the world190

7.2．Definition and Structure of Word192

7.2.1．The definition of word193

7.2.2．The structure of word194

7.2.3．The classification of word196

73．Word Formation in English and Chjnese197

7.3.1．Derivation(Affixation)in English197

7.3.2．Conversion(Zero-Derivation)in English211

7.3.3．Compounding in English213

7.3.4．Blending(portmanteau words)in English218

73.5．Shortening(Clipping)in English219

7.3.6．Initials(acronyms)in English220

7.3.7．Abbreviation in English221

7.3.8．Echoic words(onomatopoeia)in English221

7.3.9．Back-formation in English221

7.3.10．Change from proper nouns into common nouns in English222

7.3.11．Coinage(neologisms through invention)in English222

7.3.12．Folk Etymology in English223

Reference:Word-formation in Chinese224

7.4．Idioms and Collocations231

7.4.1．Idioms231

7.4.2．Collocations236

7.5．Taboo and Euphemisms238

7.5.1．Taboo238

7.5.2．Euphemisms239

7.6．Origins of Modern English Vocabulary(Etymology of English)249

7.6.1．Words of Old English250

7.6.2．Celtic loans252

7.6.3．Scandinavian loans253

7.6.4．Latin loans254

7.6.5．French loans257

7.6.6．Greek loans260

7.6.7．German loans261

7.6.8．Dutch loans262

7.6.9．Ital ian loans263

7.6.10．Spanish loans263

7.6.11．Portuguese loans263

7.6.12．Russian loans263

7.6.13．Czech loans264

7.6.14．North American Indian loans264

7.6.15．Loans from Mexican264

7.6.16．Loans from languages in Cuba and the West lndies264

7.6.17．Loans from languages in Peru264

7.6.18．Loans from Ianguages in Brazil264

7.6.19．Loans from languages of Australian Aborigines264

7.6.20．Loans from languages in India264

7.6.21．Loans from languages in Africa265

7.6.22．Loans from Arabic265

7.6.23．Loans from Hebrew265

7.6.24．Loans from Turkish265

7.6.25．Loans from the language of Eskimo265

7.6.26．Loans from Malayan265

7.6.27．Loans from Korean265

7.6.28．Loans from Japanese266

7.6.29．Loans from Chinese266

Reference:Loan words in Chinese267

Topics for Discussion270

Books for Reference270

Exercises for the Chapter270

Chapter 8 Syntax273

8.1．Traditional Approach274

8.1.1．The concept of Syntactic Categories274

8.1.2．Concord and Government277

8.1.3．The Chinese language in traditional grammar279

8.2．Structu ral Approach280

8.2.1．The Three Syntactic Relations282

8.2.2．Construction and constituent284

8.2.3．Immediate Constituent Analysis286

8.2.4．The advantages and problems of Structural Approach288

8.3．Transformational Generative Approach289

8.3.1．Chomsky's Innate Hypothesis291

8.3.2．Chomsky's Distinction Between Competence291

8.3.3．Generative Grammar291

8.3.4．Transformational Grammar295

8.3.5．Ambiguity solved bv TG Grammar298

8.3.6．Recent Development in Transformational-Generative G rammar300

8.3.7．Sinificance and Limitations in Transformational-Generative Grammar301

8.4．Functional Grammar303

8.4.1．The Prague School304

8.4.2．The London School of Linguistics304

8.4.3．SystemiC Functional G rammar306

Topics for Discussion317

Books for Reference317

Exercises for the Chapter318

Chapter 9 Phonetics and Phonology319

9.1．Phonetics319

9.1.1．Phonetics320

9.1.2．The Speech Organs320

9.1.3．Consonants321

9.1.4．Vowels323

9.2．Phonology324

9.2.1．Phonemes325

9.2.2．Distinctiveness325

9.2.3．Minimal pairs326

9.2.4．Phones and Allophones327

9.3．Phonological Rules328

9.3.1．Assimilation rules328

9.3.2．Aspiration rule329

9.3.3．Deletion rule329

9.3.4．Addition rule330

9.3.5．Flap rule330

9.3.6．Metathesis rules330

9.4．Phonetic Transcription331

9.4.1．The need for a phonetic alphabet in English332

9.4.2．Types of transcription333

9.5．Suprasegmental Phonemes335

9.5.1．The Syllable335

9.5.2．The Stress336

9.5.3．Tones341

9.5.4．Intonation343

Topics for Discussion348

Books for Reference348

Exercises for the Chapter348

Appendix 1 Introduction to the Course349

Appendix 2 Syllabus for the Course351

Appendix 3 The Constituent Structure of English Semology354

Appendix 4 The Constituent Structure of English Grammar355

Appendix 5 The Constituent Structure of English Phonology356

Model Key to Exercises357

General Bibliography375