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Part Ⅰ THE PHILOSOPHY AND ESSENTIALS OF CRIME SCENE FORENSICS3

1 Crime Scene Forensics: Philosophy, Practice, and Teaching3

1.1 Introduction3

1.2 Why Investigate the Crime Scene?4

1.3 Who Should Investigate Scenes of Crimes?5

1.3.1 Crime Scene Investigative Paradigms6

1.3.1.1 The Current Paradigm7

1.3.1.2 An Evolving Paradigm7

1.4 Definitions: Crime Scene, Forensic Science, Criminalistics, Forensics13

1.4.1 Crime Scene13

1.4.2 Forensic Science14

1.4.3 Criminalistics15

1.4.3.1 The Forensic DNA Biologist18

1.4.3.2 The Medical Examiner18

1.4.3.3 The Forensic Street Drug Chemist18

1.4.3.4 The Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Expert18

1.4.3.5 The Crime Scene Investigator19

1.4.4 Forensics19

1.5 The Concept of Evidence20

1.5.1 Perceptions of Evidence20

1.5.2 Divisible Matter and the Transfer of Evidence22

1.5.3 The Human Mind and the Recognition of Evidence23

1.5.4 The Legal Perspective/Connection24

1.5.5 Defining Evidence25

1.6 Instruction: A Philosophy26

1.6.1 Structure of the Instruction27

References29

2 The Scientific Method, Bias, and Reasoning31

2.1 Introduction31

2.2 The Scientific Method: Scene Scientists and Scene Investigators32

2.3 Bias in Scene Investigations37

2.3.1 Case Example 140

2.3.2 Case Example 240

2.4 Reasoning44

References46

3 Management Basics: The Investigative Glue47

3.1 Introduction47

3.1.1 Teaching Crime Scene Management47

3.1.2 The Learning Process48

3.2 The Responding Officer49

3.2.1 Observations49

3.2.2 Actions51

3.2.3 Documentation53

3.3 The Team Leader: Managing the Scene Investigation53

3.3.1 Subteams55

3.4 The Scene Processing Cascade57

3.4.1 Integrating the Scientific Method60

References62

4 The Fundamental Principles of Evidence63

4.1 Introduction63

4.2 The Locard Exchange Principle: "Every Touch Leaves a Trace"63

4.3 Divisible Matter65

4.4 Evidence Dynamics68

4.5 Crime Scene Elements69

4.5.1 The Macroscene70

4.5.2 The Microscene: Trace Evidence or Locard Elements73

4.5.2.1 The Transfer of Microscene Elements75

4.6 Scene Scenario80

References84

5 Searching the Scene: Logic in Action87

5.1 Introduction87

5.2 Processing versus Investigation89

5.3 Defining the Search90

5.3.1 Effective Management91

5.3.2 Nature of the Scene91

5.3.3 Logic92

5.3.4 Systematic93

5.3.5 Creative Thinking--Out of the Box93

5.4 Scene Search Methods93

5.4.1 The Line (Grid) Methods95

5.4.1.1 The Sequence of an Outdoor Search--Archiving and Searching Using the Grid Method97

5.4.1.2 Zone and Point-to-Point Searches98

5.4.1.3 The Link Method100

5.4.1.4 Ray or Wheel Search100

5.5 Employing On-Scene Technology and/or Statements101

5.6 Pressures at the Scene101

5.6.1 Constraints102

5.7 Archiving and Searching Common Scene Types102

5.8 Technology to Aid Searching102

5.9 Searching for Trace Evidence--Overview Considerations102

References105

Part Ⅱ FORENSIC ARCHIVING: TODAY'S EYE FOR THE FUTURE109

6 The Principles of Forensic Photography109

6.1 Introduction to Forensic Archiving109

6.1.1 Passive Archiving110

6.1.2 Active Archiving110

6.2 Techniques of Forensic Archiving111

6.2.1 Digital Forensic Photography (Photographic Archiving)111

6.2.2 The Purpose of Forensic Photography112

6.2.3 Critical Aspects of Forensic Photography113

6.3 The SLR Digital Camera113

6.4 Essential Skills of Forensic Photography115

6.4.1 Focus: "If It's Not in Focus, the Rest Doesn't Matter" 115

6.4.2 The Correct Forensic Exposure116

6.4.2.1 Equivalent Exposures117

6.4.3 Aperture118

6.4.3.1 Telling the Scene's Story: The Importance of Aperture120

6.4.4 Shutter Speed122

6.4.5 Exposure Values123

6.4.6 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)124

6.4.7 Focal Length124

6.4.8 Metering125

6.4.9 Exposure Compensation126

6.4.10 White Balance126

6.4.11 Capturing Forensic Content Properly128

6.5 Forensic Aspects of Photography129

6.5.1 Scene Incident Photographic Worksheet130

6.5.2 Photographic Log130

6.5.3 Types of Photographs130

6.5.3.1 Establishing--Overview or Overall--Photographs130

6.5.3.2 Midrange Photographs132

6.5.3.3 Close-Up Photographs133

6.5.4 Illumination133

6.5.5 Filters136

6.6 Forensic-Specific Considerations136

6.6.1 Camera Positions136

6.6.2 Scales138

6.7 Photography of Common Scene Scenarios138

6.7.1 Vehicular Accidents139

6.7.2 Homicide Scenes140

6.7.3 Nonhomicide Sexual Assaults143

6.7.4 Suicides144

6.7.5 Hit-and-Run Cases146

6.7.6 Fatal Accidents: Body inside the Vehicle146

6.7.7 Burglary: Breaking and Entering146

6.7.8 Fire Scenes: Arson147

6.8 Special Photographic Situations147

6.8.1 Night and Low-Light Scenes148

6.8.1.1 Painting with Light148

6.8.1.2 Slaves149

6.8.2 Impression Evidence Photography149

6.8.3 Close-Up Photography152

6.8.3.1 Image in the Viewfinder152

6.8.3.2 The Close-Up Lens152

6.8.3.3 Illumination153

6.8.3.4 Depth of Field154

6.8.3.5 Focus154

6.8.3.6 Scales154

References154

Workshop 1: Photography--Camera Basics155

W 1.1 Introduction155

W 1.2 Required Tools156

W 1.3 Camera Basics156

W 1.3.1 File Formats156

W 1.3.2 Camera Function Dials and Menu Options156

W 1.4 Exercise 1157

W 1.4.1 Aperture Priority157

W 1.4.2 Shutter Speed159

W 1.4.3 Manual Priority159

W 1.5 Dark Environment Photography160

W 1.5.1 ISO160

W 1.5.2 Painting with Light or Using Slaves161

W 1.6 Close-Up Photography161

W 1.6.1 Procedure162

W 1.6.2 Questions162

7 The Paper Trail: Case Files, Worksheets, Notes, and Sketches163

7.1 Introduction: General Considerations163

7.2 Case Files163

7.2.1 Worksheets164

7.2.1.1 Forms164

7.2.1.2 Mistakes167

7.3 Sketches167

7.3.1 Indoor Sketch Types169

7.3.1.1 Plan Sketch169

7.3.1.2 Cross-Projection or Exploded Sketch170

7.3.1.3 Elevation Sketch171

7.3.1.4 Perspective Sketch: 3D Rendering of a Scene171

7.3.2 Outdoor Sketches172

7.4 Measuring the Scene172

7.4.1 Locating Objects173

7.4.1.1 Triangulation173

7.4.1.2 Baseline Method174

7.4.2 Photogrammetry177

7.4.3 Outdoor Scene Measurements177

7.5 Securing the Archive179

References183

Workshop 2: Sketching the Scene183

W 2.1 Introduction183

W 2.2 Required Tools183

W 2.2.1 Indoor Tools184

W 2.2.2 Outdoor Tools184

W 2.3 General Methods for Measuring the Scene184

W 2.3.1 Triangulation184

W 2.3.2 The Baseline Method184

W 2.4 Indoor Scene Measurements184

W 2.5 Outdoor Scene Measurements185

W 2.6 Instructor Demonstration185

W 2.7 Exercises185

W 2.7.1 An Outdoor Scene185

W 2.7.2 An Indoor Scene185

W 2.8 Questions188

8 Videography: The Forensic Documentary189

8.1 Introduction189

8.1.1 The Forensic Value of Crime Scene Video189

8.1.1.1 Objective of the Video190

8.1.2 Crime Scene Video Is a Documentary190

8.1.3 Basic Video Terminology190

8.1.4 Essential Video Camera Features191

8.1.5 Requirements of a Forensic Videographer192

8.1.5.1 Camera Movement Terminology192

8.2 Basic Forensic Videography: The Scene Video193

8.2.1 Camera Speed and Position194

8.2.2 Camera Distances and Angles194

8.2.3 Establishing Video Shows the Backdrop of the Scene194

8.2.4 Close-Up Detail194

8.3 The Forensic Topic Video and Forensic Photography195

8.4 The Prescene Checklist196

8.5 On-Scene Fundamentals197

References197

Part Ⅲ IMPRESSION EVIDENCE: PATTERNS OF IDENTITY201

9 Fingerprints Ⅰ: The Intellectual Ingredients201

9.1 Introduction201

9.2 A Reasoned, Scientific Approach203

9.2.1 On-Scene Printing: Menu-Driven versus Logic-Based Approaches203

9.2.1.1 The Scene204

9.2.1.2 Surface Characteristics204

9.2.1.3 Environmental Conditions and the Age of the Print206

9.2.1.4 The Tools206

9.2.1.5 Resources207

9.2.1.6 Technology and Its Limitations207

9.2.1.7 Logic208

9.2.1.8 Knowledge of the Science209

9.2.1.9 Experience209

9.2.1.10 Critical Thinking209

9.2.1.11 Out-of-the-Box Reasoning209

References210

10 Fingerprints Ⅱ: On-Scene Considerations211

10.1 Introduction211

10.2 The Glandular Origin of Fingerprints212

10.3 Finding Fingerprints at Scenes: General Considerations215

10.4 Fingerprint Development Strategies215

10.4.1 Porous Surfaces217

10.4.1.1 Fingerprint Penetration into the Surface Matrix217

10.4.1.2 Fingerprint Development Cascades for Porous Surfaces218

10.4.2 Nonporous Surfaces222

10.4.2.1 Powder Dusting223

10.5 Fingerprints and DNA226

10.5.1 Superglue (Cyanoacrylate) Fuming226

10.5.1.1 Chemistry of the Cyanoacrylate Reaction227

10.5.1.2 Superglue Fuming Methods228

10.6 Lifting Developed Prints234

10.6.1 Powder Lifts234

10.6.1.1 Surface234

10.7 Fingerprints on Adhesive Tapes237

10.7.1 Removing Tape from Its Substrate237

10.7.1.1 Physical Processes238

10.7.1.2 Cooling238

10.7.1.3 Freezer Spray238

10.7.1.4 Solvents238

10.7.2 Packaging and Protecting Adhesive Tapes239

10.7.3 Developing Fingerprints on the Adhesive Side of Tapes239

10.7.3.1 Rubber-Based Adhesives240

10.7.3.2 Acrylic-Based Adhesives241

10.7.3.3 Spot Testing Adhesives [32]242

10.8 Patent Prints242

10.8.1 Strategy One242

10.8.2 Strategy Two243

10.9 Impression Evidence in Blood245

10.9.1 Blood as Multitasking Evidence246

10.9.1.1 HOSDB Formulation for Acid Black 1, Acid Violet 17, and Acid Yellow 7249

10.9.1.2 FBI Formulation for Acid Black 1249

10.9.1.3 General Protein Fixing Procedure250

10.9.1.4 General Procedure for Staining Blood Impressions250

10.9.1.5 General Procedure for On-Scene Blood Print Staining251

10.10 Fingerprints and Heat: Fire Scenes251

10.10.1 Effect of Heat on Fingerprints252

10.10.2 Locating Fingerprints at Arson Scenes253

10.10.3 On-Scene Activity254

References254

Workshop 3: Fingerprints on Nonporous Surfaces--Dusting Powders256

W 3.1 Inked and Rolled Prints256

W 3.2 Developing Fingerprints at the Scene Using Dusting Powders256

W 3.3 Fingerprint Residue257

W 3.3.1 General Guidelines for Print Development257

W 3.3.2 Powders Available257

W 3.3.3 Demonstration258

W 3.3.4 Exercise 1: Dusting Nonporous Surfaces258

W 3.3.5 Exercise 2: Finding and Lifting Latent Fingerprints in a Mock Scene259

W 3.4 Fingerprints on Wet Surfaces259

W 3.4.1 Demonstration259

W 3.5 Prints on the Sticky Side of Adhesive Tapes260

W 3.5.1 Sticky-Side Fingerprint Developing Reagents260

W 3.5.2 Spot Testing the Sticky-Side Chemistry260

W 3.5.3 Exercise 4: Finding Prints on the Sticky Side of Adhesive Tape261

W 3.6 Lifting Fingerprints261

W 3.6.1 Tape-Lifting Procedure261

W 3.6.2 Exercise 5: Lifting Dusted Fingerprints262

W 3.7 Fluorescent Powders262

W 3.7.1 Demonstration262

W 3.7.2 Exercise 6262

W 3.8 MikrosilTM Casting--Tex-Liff--Gellifters263

W 3.8.1 Demonstration for Lifting Black and Dual-Dusted Fingerprints263

W 3.8.2 Exercise 8: Lifting Prints Using Gels and MikrosilTM Casts263

W 3.9 Prints on Skin: Demonstration263

W 3.10 Finding Prints at the Scene: Demonstration264

W 3.10.1 Reflected Ultraviolet Light265

W 3.10.2 Alternate Light Source265

W 3.10.3 Oblique Lighting265

Workshop 4: Fingerprints on Nonporous (Continued) and Porous Surfaces265

W 4.1 Nonporous Surfaces (Continued)265

W 4.1.1 Super Glue Fuming and Enhancement: Background265

W 4.1.2 Prints on Metallic Surfaces: Corrosion Analysis267

W 4.2 Porous Surfaces268

W 4.2.1 Exercise 1: Iodine Fuming268

W 4.2.2 Exercise 2: Ninhydrin-Developed Fingerprints269

W 4.2.3 Exercise 3: DFO-Developed Prints269

W 4.2.4 Exercise 4: 1,2-Indanedione-Developed Prints270

W 4.2.5 Exercise 5: Heat-Developed Prints270

W 4.2.6 Exercise 6: Lanthanide-Developed Prints270

W 4.3 Questions271

11 Pattern Evidence Ⅰ: Footwear Impressions273

11.1 Introduction273

11.2 General Characteristics of Impression Evidence273

11.3 Footwear Impressions (Marks)274

11.3.1 Is Footwear Evidence Important?274

11.3.2 CLassifying Footwear Impressions278

11.3.3 Scene Investigation versus Laboratory Processes279

11.3.4 Likelihood That Footwear Impressions Are Present280

11.3.5 Finding Footwear Evidence at the Scene281

11.3.6 Common Footwear Transfers282

11.3.7 Enhancing Footwear Impressions: Understanding the Composition of Dust and Soil283

11.4 2D Impression Evidence284

11.4.1 Finding 2D Footwear Impressions at the Scene285

11.4.1.1 Using Light to Locate Impression Evidence285

11.5 Dry Residue Impressions286

11.5.1 Science of Lifting Dry and Wet Residue Prints287

11.5.1.1 Electrostatic Lifting287

11.5.1.2 Gelatin Lifters/Gel Lifters (Gellifters)289

11.6 Wet Residue Impressions291

11.6.1 Enhancing Wet Residue Impressions291

11.7 Visible (Patent) Impressions: Contaminating Substances292

11.8 Preserving Enhanced Footwear Impressions294

11.9 3D Impression Evidence295

11.9.1 Photographic Archiving of 3D Impression Evidence297

11.9.2 Casting to Preserve 3D Impression Evidence297

11.9.2.1 Materials Required300

11.9.2.2 Preparing the Impression301

11.9.2.3 General Casting Procedure301

11.9.2.4 Lifting the Cast302

11.9.3 Special Circumstances302

11.9.3.1 Casting in Snow302

11.9.3.2 Snow Casting Procedure302

References303

12 Pattern Evidence Ⅱ: Vehicle-Involved Scenes305

12.1 Introduction305

12.2 Vehicle-Involved Scenes305

12.2.1 Tire Track Impression Evidence: Evidence Often Overlooked306

12.2.1.1 Why Conduct a Comprehensive Forensic On-Scene Investigation of Tire Track Evidence?307

12.2.2 On-Scene Considerations308

12.2.2.1 Management309

12.2.2.2 Archiving309

12.2.2.3 On-Scene Information310

12.2.3 Impressions Other than Dirt313

References313

Workshop 5: Pattern Evidence313

W 5.1 2D and 3D Footwear Impressions313

W 5.1.1 Exercise 1: Casting Footprint and Tire Track Impressions Using Dental Stone313

W 5.2 Locating Dry (Dust) Residue Prints315

W 5.2.1 Exercise 2a: Finding Dry and Wet Residue Prints Indoors316

W 5.2.2 Exercise 2b: Finding Dust Prints Outdoors317

W 5.3 Lifting Wet and Dry Residue Dust Prints317

W 5.3.1 Dry Residue Prints317

W 5.3.2 Wet Residue Prints319

W 5.4 Tire Impression Evidence321

W 5.4.1 Recording Known Tire Impressions321

W 5.4.2 Determining Wheelbase from Tire Impressions322

W 5.5 Questions325

Part Ⅳ THE BIOLOGICAL CRIME SCENE329

13 The Biological Crime Scene: It's Not Just about DNA329

13.1 Introduction329

13.1.1 Categories of Biological Evidence330

13.1.2 Searching for Biological Evidence331

13.2 Locating Biological Evidence at the Scene333

13.3 Commonly Occurring Biological Evidence334

13.3.1 Blood334

13.3.1.1 On-Scene Testing for Blood334

13.3.1.2 The Unaided Human Eye335

13.3.1.3 The Aided Human Eye: ALSs335

13.3.1.4 IR Cameras: Combining Searching and Photography336

13.3.1.5 Chemical Presumptive Testing338

13.3.1.6 Lateral Flow Immunochromatography341

13.3.1.7 Collecting and Packaging Blood Evidence342

13.3.2 Semen343

13.3.2.1 Performing the AP Test on Fresh Semen Stains345

13.3.2.2 Quality Assurance and Control Testing345

13.3.2.3 Establishing a Rationale for Searching for Semen347

13.3.2.4 Collecting and Packaging Semen Evidence350

13.3.3 Saliva350

13.3.3.1 Collecting and Packaging Saliva Evidence353

13.3.4 Urine353

13.3.4.1 Collecting and Packaging Urine Evidence354

13.3.5 Feces355

13.3.5.1 Collecting and Packaging Feces Evidence355

13.3.6 Vomit355

13.3.6.1 Collecting and Packaging Vomit Evidence355

13.3.7 Hair356

13.3.7.1 Collecting and Packaging Hair Evidence356

13.3.8 Fingerprint/Skin Residue356

13.3.8.1 Collecting and Packaging Skin Residue357

13.3.9 Sloughed-Off Cells358

13.3.9.1 Collecting and Packaging Sloughed-Off Cell Evidence358

13.4 Not-as-Common Biological Evidence358

13.4.1 Bacteria/Spores/Viruses358

13.4.2 Plant Material359

13.5 Condom Evidence359

13.5.1 Collecting and Packaging Condom Evidence360

13.6 Quality Assurance at the Scene361

References361

Workshop 6: Biological Fluids at the Scene--Blood363

W 6.1 Introduction: Identifying Blood at the Scene363

W 6.2 Visual Examination363

W 6.2.1 Exercise 1: Using the ALS to Locate Blood363

W 6.3 Chemical Testing364

W 6.3.1 Exercise 2: Presumptive Identification of Blood at the Scene364

W 6.3.2 Exercise 3: Finding "Invisible" Bloodstains at the Scene: BlueStarTM366

W 6.4 Immunological Testing: Identifying Human Blood at the Scene367

W 6.4.1 Exercise 4: Identifying Human Blood367

W 6.5 Nonblood Evidence at the Scene: Detecting Sugars Using HemaStixTM Strips367

W 6.5.1 HemaStixTM Strips367

W 6.5.2 Sugar-Containing Stains367

References368

Workshop 7: Drying Time of Blood368

W 7.1 Introduction368

W 7.2 Exercise 1: Drying Time of Blood Droplets368

W 7.2.1 Procedure368

W 7.3 Exercise 2: Drying Time of a Blood Pool369

W 7.3.1 Procedure369

Workshop 8: Locating Semen and Saliva at the Scene369

W 8.1 Introduction369

W 8.2 Exercise 1: Using the ALS to Find Semen at Crime Scenes369

W 8.3 Exercise 2: Using the ALS to Find Saliva at Crime Scenes370

W 8.4 Questions371

14 Introduction to Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: The Basics373

14.1 Introduction373

14.2 Historical Perspectives: BPA in the United States374

14.3 Scientific Basis of BPA376

14.3.1 Biochemistry378

14.3.2 Physics379

14.3.2.1 Surface Tension379

14.3.2.2 Fluid Mechanics (Dynamics)379

14.3.2.3 Trajectory Analysis (Ballistics)379

14.3.2.4 Gravitation (Gravity)380

14.3.2.5 Terminal Velocity380

14.3.2.6 Centripetal Force381

14.4 Fundamental Principles of BPA381

14.4.1 Blood Droplets and Surface Tension: Shape of a Falling Droplet381

14.4.2 Defining the Direction of Blood Travel382

14.4.2.1 Shape of Blood Droplets after Striking Surfaces382

14.4.2.2 Dynamics of Blood-Striking-Angled Surfaces382

14.4.2.3 Blood or Drip Trails382

14.4.2.4 Shape and Size of Bloodstains385

14.4.2.5 Perimeter Stain: Ghosting or Skeletonization387

14.4.2.6 Calculating the Angle of Impact387

14.4.2.7 Determining the Origin of an Impact389

14.5 ArchivingBloodstain Patterns394

14.6 Bloodstain Artifacts: Selected Examples394

14.6.1 Insect Activity396

14.6.1.1 Flies396

14.6.1.2 Cockroaches396

14.6.2 On-Scene Activity396

14.6.3 Fabrics: Differential Absorption397

14.7 Becoming a BPA Analyst397

14.7.1 SWGSTAIN-Recommended Guidelines for Training399

14.7.2 BPA Certification399

14.8 Quality Assurance Guidelines for BPA404

References404

Workshop 9: BPA--The Basics406

W 9.1 Introduction: Patterns in Blood406

W 9.2 Falling Blood Droplets406

W 9.2.1 Exercise 1: Vertically Dropping Blood406

W 9.3 Exercise 2: Angularity of Blood408

W 9.3.1 Procedure408

W 9.4 Exercise 3: Blood Trails408

W 9.4.1 Procedure409

W 9.5 Exercise 4: Blood Dripping from Objects409

W 9.5.1 Procedure409

W 9.6 Exercise 5: Bloody Footprints409

W 9.6.1 Procedure409

W 9.7 Exercise 6: Other Patterns: Swipes, Cast Off, Dragging (Hair), and Crawling410

W 9.7.1 Swipes and Wipes410

W 9.7.2 Exercise 7: Cast-Off Pattern410

W 9.7.3 Exercise 8: Dragging (Hair)411

W 9.7.4 Exercise 9: Crawling through Blood411

Workshop 10: Bloodstain Patterns--Impact Spatter and Area ot Origin411

W 10.1 Introduction: Area of Origin of Impact Spatter411

W 10.1.1 Exercise 1: The StringMethod--Determining Area of Impact Manually411

W 10.1.2 Exercise 2: The String Method--Using the Laser to Determine Area of Impact412

W 10.2 Exercise 3: Multiple Blows--2D Area of Convergence412

W 10.3 Questions413

15 Mass Fatality Events, Bioweapons, and Microbial Forensics415

15.1 Mass Fatality Events: An Introduction415

15.1.1 Defining Mass Fatality Events415

15.1.2 The Anatomy of Mass Fatality Events416

15.1.2.1 Loss of Life and Structure416

15.1.2.2 The Human Consequences of Mass Fatality Events417

15.1.3 Identifying the Dead in Mass Fatality Events418

15.1.3.1 The Ingredients Necessary for Identification419

15.2 Introduction to Bioweapons and Microbial Forensics421

15.3 Microbial Forensics423

15.3.1 Bioterrorism Terminology424

15.3.2 Bioweapons424

15.3.2.1 Bacterial Pathogens425

15.3.2.2 Viral Pathogens425

15.3.2.3 Other Bioweapon Categories428

15.3.3 The Bioscene433

15.3.3.1 Powder or Suspicious Envelopes/Packages at the Scene433

15.4 Collecting Bioagents at the Scene438

15.5 Protecting Investigators Performing Environmental Sampling440

15.5.1 Air-Purifying Respirators440

15.5.2 Disposable Protective Clothing: Integral Hood and Booties440

15.6 Mass Fatality Internet Resources443

References443

16 Forensic Entomology: Bugs and the Postmortem Interval445

16.1 Forensic Entomology: Introduction445

16.2 What Happens after Death448

16.3 PMI and Life Cycles448

16.4 Equipment/Reagents Required for Collecting Entomological Evidence452

16.5 What to Do at the Scene452

16.6 Arson and Entomological Survival453

References455

Part Ⅴ MICROSCENES AND TRACE EVIDENCE459

17 Microscenes: Hair and Fibers459

17.1 Introduction459

17.2 Hair and Fibers as Evidence459

17.2.1 DNA in Hair461

17.2.1.1 The Growth Cycle of Hair461

17.2.1.2 DNA and the Structural Parts of the Hair462

17.3 Transfer and Persistence of Hair463

17.3.1 Transfer of Hair at the Scene463

17.3.2 Persistence of Hair464

17.4 Collecting and Preserving Hair at the Scene465

17.4.1 Documentation465

17.4.1.1 Create a Case File for the Specific Case465

17.4.1.2 Record Important Case-Specific Information465

17.4.1.3 Contamination and Loss465

17.5 Trace Evidence Collection and Preservation Techniques466

17.5.1 Record Keeping466

17.5.2 Collection Techniques466

17.5.2.1 Picking (Hunt and Peck)467

17.5.2.2 Tape Lifting467

17.5.2.3 Scraping467

17.5.2.4 Vacuuming468

17.5.2.5 Combing468

17.5.2.6 Clipping and Scraping Fingernails468

17.6 Evidence Security469

References469

Workshop 11: Every Touch Leaves a Trace: Hairs and Fibers470

W 11.1 Introduction470

W 11.1.1 Considerations470

W 11.2 Finding Trace Evidence: Locard Elements471

W 11.2.1 Picking (Hunt and Peck)471

W 11.2.2 Tape Lifting471

W 11.2.3 Vacuuming472

W 11.2.4 Combing473

W 11.2.5 Scraping473

W 11.2.6 Clipping473

W 11.3 Exercise 2: The Locard Exchange Principle473

W 11.3.1 Procedure474

W 11.4 Questions474

18 Glass: A Multitasking Class of Evidence475

18.1 Introduction475

18.1.1 What Is Glass?475

18.2 Glass as Evidence476

18.2.1 Direction of Force478

18.2.1.1 Bullet through a Window480

18.2.2 When the Radial Edge Fails482

18.2.3 Direction through a Windshield482

18.2.3.1 Sequencing Bullet Shots in Plate Glass483

18.3 Collecting, Packaging, and Preserving Glass Evidence484

References486

Workshop 12: Glass as Evidence486

W 12.1 Introduction: Glass at the Scene486

W 12.2 Point of Impact486

W 12.3 Exercise 1: Direction of Force487

W 12.4 Distribution of Glass Shards487

W 12.4.1 Exercise 2488

W 12.5 Questions488

19 Soil and Paint as Evidence489

19.1 Soil: An Introduction489

19.2 The Forensic Premise: Location Diversity of Soil489

19.2.1 Can Science Differentiate Soil Sufficiently for Forensic Investigations?490

19.2.2 Do Soil Samples Differ from Location to Location?490

19.2.3 Is There a Statistical Standard for Soil Matches?490

19.3 Forensic Value of Soil491

19.3.1 Soil Taphnomy491

19.3.2 Associative Evidence: Similarities in Soil Composition491

19.3.3 Exculpatory Evidence: Dissimilarities in Soil Composition491

19.3.4 Sequence of Deposition: Layering of Soil491

19.4 Collecting and Preserving Soil492

19.4.1 Logic492

19.4.2 Packaging Soil Evidence492

19.4.3 Soil from a Cast492

19.4.4 Exemplar Soil Samples492

19.4.5 Samples from Vehicles493

19.5 Paint: An Introduction494

19.5.1 What Is Paint?494

19.5.2 Forensic Value of Paint Evidence495

19.5.2.1 Hit-and-Run Cases496

19.5.2.2 Burglaries497

19.5.3 Collecting Paint Evidence498

19.5.3.1 Scene Samples498

19.5.3.2 Exemplar or Known Samples499

References500

Part Ⅵ BANG! IT'S A SHOOTING INCIDENT SCENE505

20 Introducing Shooting Scene Investigations505

20.1 Introduction505

20.2 On-Scene Considerations and Activity505

20.2.1 Fragile Evidence507

20.2.1.1 Gunshot Residue507

20.2.1.2 Cartridge Cases507

20.2.1.3 The Usual Fragile Evidence507

20.2.1.4 Bullets508

20.2.1.5 Bullet/Projectile Marks and Holes508

20.3 Basic Facts and Definitions508

20.3.1 Ammunition509

20.3.1.1 Small Arms Ammunition509

20.3.1.2 Shotgun Ammunition510

20.3.2 Primer Compounds and Their Composition510

20.3.2.1 Lead-Based Primers511

20.3.2.2 Lead-Free and Nontoxic Primers511

20.4 Forensic Ballistics511

20.4.1 Internal (Interior) Ballistics511

20.4.2 External Ballistics511

20.4.3 Terminal Ballistics511

20.5 Bullets--The Locard Exchange Principle in Action512

20.5.1 Identifying Bullet Strikes513

20.5.2 Chemical Analysis of Bullet Holes and Other Defects513

20.5.3 Bullet Wipe514

20.5.4 Trace Evidence514

20.5.5 Testing for Lead515

20.5.6 Testing for Copper516

20.5.7 Testing for Nickel517

20.6 Bullet Holes and Caliber518

20.7 Trace Evidence and Bullet Holes519

20.7.1 Blood from Bullets and Bullet Holes520

20.8 Bullet Flight Paths520

20.8.1 Intermediate Targets521

20.8.2 Fatal Bullets521

20.8.3 Number of Weapons Fired521

20.8.4 Shooter Position521

20.8.5 Bullet Flight Path Angular Components522

20.8.6 Bullet Flight Paths into Fixed Objects522

20.8.7 Trajectory Rods522

20.8.8 Angular Components of the Bullet Flight Path523

20.8.8.1 Vertical Component523

20.8.8.2 Azimuth or Horizontal Angular Component524

20.8.8.3 Bullet Flight Paths through Unfixed Objects525

20.9 Ricochet527

20.9.1 Tendencies to Ricochet529

20.9.1.1 Nature of the Bullet529

20.9.1.2 Shape of the Bullet529

20.9.1.3 Response of the Surface529

20.9.1.4 Velocity529

20.9.2 Surface Characteristics and Ricochet Angles529

20.9.2.1 Soft or Yielding Surfaces529

20.9.2.2 Hard or Unyielding Surfaces531

20.9.2.3 Direction532

20.9.2.4 Effects of Ricochet533

20.9.2.5 Deflections533

20.9.2.6 Why Ricochets Are Important533

20.10 Packaging/Preserving Firearms Evidence533

20.10.1 Firearms534

20.10.2 Bullets534

20.10.3 Cartridge Cases535

20.10.4 Ammunition535

20.10.5 Powder and Shot Patterns535

References536

21 Vehicles as Shooting Incident Crime Scenes537

21.1 Introduction537

21.2 Two Scenes in One537

21.2.1 Outside the Vehicle538

21.2.2 Inside the Vehicle539

21.2.3 Vehicle Checklist539

21.3 Bullets and Vehicles540

21.3.1 Issues in the Determination of Bullet Paths540

21.3.1.1 Vehicle Composition540

21.3.1.2 Vehicles in Motion541

21.3.2 On-Scene Activity541

21.3.2.1 Positioning the Vehicle541

21.3.3 Post-On-Scene Activity543

21.3.3.1 Measuring the Vehicle543

21.4 Perforating Strikes to Vehicles545

21.5 Penetrating (Nonexiting) Strikes to Vehicles546

References547

Part Ⅶ MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS AND SPECIALIZED SCENES551

22 Fire Scenes: A Scientific Method Investigation551

22.1 Introduction551

22.2 The Scientific Method in Fire Investigations551

22.3 Essential Fire Science552

22.3.1 Scientific Complexities of a Fire553

22.3.1.1 Combustion Products553

22.3.1.2 Heat Transfer or Heat Flux or Energy Flow554

22.3.1.3 Fuel Load554

22.3.1.4 Heat Release Rate554

22.3.1.5 Properties of Flames555

22.3.1.6 Ignition555

22.3.1.7 Fire Effects and Fire Patterns556

22.4 First Responder556

22.5 The Fire Scene Investigation556

22.5.1 Archiving the Fire Scene561

22.5.2 Evidence at Fire Scenes562

22.5.3 Collecting Evidence563

22.5.3.1 Liquid Accelerants564

22.5.3.2 Liquid Evidence Absorbed by Solid Materials564

22.5.3.3 Solid Samples564

22.6 Tools, Equipment, and PPE564

22.6.1 Personal Protective Equipment564

22.6.2 Tools and Equipment564

22.7 Fire Resources and Contacts565

References565

23 Quality at the Crime Scene567

23.1 Introduction567

23.2 A Comprehensive Quality Program for Crime Scene Investigative Units567

23.2.1 Goals and Objectives567

23.2.2 Organization and Management567

23.2.3 Personnel567

23.2.4 Facilities568

23.2.5 Evidence Control568

23.2.6 Validation568

23.2.7 Analytical Procedures568

23.2.8 Equipment Calibration and Maintenance569

23.2.9 Reports570

23.2.10 Review570

23.2.11 Proficiency Testing570

23.2.12 Corrective Action571

23.2.13 Audits571

23.2.14 Safety572

23.2.15 Outsourcing572

23.2.16 Written Records572

23.2.17 Organization and Management572

23.2.17.1 Management Stall572

23.2.17.2 Personnel573

23.3 Defining Quality at the Scene573

23.3.1 Quality Control of Testing Reagents574

23.3.1.1 Standard Operating Procedure for Blood Testing Reagents574

23.3.2 Standard Operating Procedures575

23.3.2.1 Performing the AP Test on Fresh Semen Stains575

References576

24 Collection and Preservation of Evidence577

24.1 Introduction577

24.2 Rules of Thumb for Packaging Evidence577

24.3 List of EvidentiaryCategories578

25 Scientific and Technical Working Groups589

25.1 Introduction589

References590

Glossary591

Index599